# Single-Pass Online Statistics Algorithms

## 1. Introduction

The "textbook" two-pass algorithm for the centered moments (variance, skewness, kurtosis, covariance) is obviously inefficient. There were suggested several alternative algorithms [1 - 16]. Unfortunately I could not find suitable one-pass windowed algorithms similar to the mowing average [17]. Therefore I decided to derive the equations and implement them myself.

## 2. Problem statement

We assume that there is a stream of data: $x_{1},\, x_{2},\, x_{3},\,\ldots\,,\, x_{k}$ . Here $x_{k}$ is the most recent value. There are two variants of statistics: (i) a cumulative statistics of all $k$ values, and (ii) the statistics of $n$ the most recent values. The latter is also called a moving or a windowed statistics. Note that the cumulative statistics is also a windowed with $n=k$.

## 3. The first moment, mean value

### 3.1. Definition

The first moment (moving average, mean value) of the length $n$ is defined as $$m_{k}(n)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}x_{i}=\frac{1}{n}S_{k}(n)\label{eq:avg}$$ Below for $k=n$ we use the notation $X_{k}(k)=X_{k}$.

### 3.2. Cumulative calculations

When all incoming values are incorporated into calculations ($n=k$), the above equation (\ref{eq:avg}) reduces to: $$m_{k}=m_{k}(k)=\frac{1}{k}\sum_{i=1}^{k}x_{i}=\frac{1}{k}S_{k}\label{eq:avgc}$$ From Eq. \ref{eq:avgc} we get the following recurrence: \begin{eqnarray} m_{k} & = & \frac{1}{k}S_{k}=\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{k}+S_{k-1}\right)=\frac{x_{k}}{k}+\frac{k-1}{k}m_{k-1}=m_{k-1}+\frac{x_{k}-m_{k-1}}{k}\nonumber \\ & = & m_{k-1}+\frac{\delta_{k}}{k}\label{eq:recc} \end{eqnarray} where $$\delta_{k}=x_{k}-m_{k-1}\label{eq:dk}$$

### 3.3. Windowed (constant-length, moving) calculations

In the case when only the last $n$ values are used, the recurrence is \begin{eqnarray} m_{k}(n) & = & \frac{1}{n}S_{k}(n)=\frac{1}{n}\left(x_{k}+S_{k-1}(n)-x_{k-n}\right)=\frac{x_{k}}{k}+\frac{k-1}{k}m_{k-1}=m_{k-1}+\frac{x_{k}-x_{k-n}}{n}\nonumber \\ & = & m_{k-1}(n)+\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\label{eq:recw} \end{eqnarray} Here $$\delta_{k-n}=x_{k-n}-m_{k-1}\label{eq:dkn}$$ Note that (\ref{eq:recw}) reduces to (\ref{eq:recc}) if we set \begin{eqnarray} \delta_{k-n} & = & 0\nonumber \\ n & = & k\label{eq:w2c} \end{eqnarray} Instead of (\ref{eq:w2c}) we can also formally define $\delta_{0}=0$.

## 4. Central moments

### 4.1. Definitions

Similar to (\ref{eq:avg}), the p-th order central moments are defined as $$M_{p,k}(n)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k}(n)\right]^{p}=\frac{1}{n}S_{p,k}(n)\label{eq:avgp}$$

### 4.2. Windowed variance ($p=2$)

For the case of $p=2$ Eq. \ref{eq:avgp} reduces to $$M_{2,k}(n)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k}(n)\right]^{2}=\frac{1}{n}S_{p,k}(n)\label{eq:avg2}$$ It can be rewritten using (\ref{eq:recw}): \begin{eqnarray} S_{2,k}(n) & = & \sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k}(n)\right]^{2}=\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)-\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right]^{2}\nonumber \\ & = & \sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left\{ \left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]^{2}-2\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}+\left(\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right)^{2}\right\} \label{eq:S2w} \end{eqnarray} or \begin{eqnarray} S_{2,k}(n) & = & S_{2,k-1}(n)+\delta_{k}^{2}-\delta_{k-n}^{2}-2(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})[m_{k}(n)-m_{k-1}(n)]+\frac{(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})^{2}}{n}\nonumber \\ & = & S_{2,k-1}(n)+\delta_{k}^{2}-\delta_{k-n}^{2}-\frac{(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})^{2}}{n}\label{eq:S2wrec} \end{eqnarray} This gives the recurrence formula for the windowed online variance calculations.

### 4.3. Cumulative variance calculations

In order to get the cumulative formula, we can formally apply the conditions (\ref{eq:w2c}): $$S_{2,k}=S_{2,k-1}+\delta_{k}^{2}-\frac{\delta_{k}^{2}}{k}=S_{2,k-1}+\frac{k-1}{k}\delta_{k}^{2}\label{eq:rec2c}$$ This can be also rewritten as $S_{2,k}=S_{2,k-1}+(x_{k}-m_{k})(x_{k}-m_{k-1})$

## 5. Higher central sums

### 5.1. Windowed calculations for $p=3$

Similar to (\ref{eq:S2w}): \begin{eqnarray} S_{3,k}(n) & = & \sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k}(n)\right]^{3}=\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)-\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right]^{3}\nonumber \\ & = & \sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left\{ \begin{array}{c} \left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]^{3}-3\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]^{2}\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\\ +3\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]\left(\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right)^{2}-\left(\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right)^{3} \end{array}\right\} \label{eq:S3w} \end{eqnarray} or $$S_{3,k}(n)=S_{3,k-1}(n)+\delta_{k}^{3}-\delta_{k-n}^{3}-\frac{3}{n}(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})[S_{2,k-1}(n)+\delta_{k}^{2}-\delta_{k-n}^{2}]+\frac{2}{n^{2}}(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})^{3}\label{eq:S3wrec}$$

### 5.2. Cumulative calculations for $p=3$

Using the same trick and applying the condition (\ref{eq:w2c}), we get: $$S_{3,k}=S_{3,k-1}+\delta_{k}^{3}-\frac{3}{k}\delta_{k}[S_{2,k-1}+\delta_{k}^{2}]+\frac{2}{k^{2}}\delta_{k}^{3}$$ or $$S_{3,k}=S_{3,k-1}-\frac{3}{k}S_{2,k-1}\delta_{k}+\frac{(k-1)(k-2)}{k^{2}}\delta_{k}^{3}$$

### 5.3. Windowed calculations for $p=4$

Similar to (\ref{eq:S2w}) and (\ref{eq:S3w}): \begin{eqnarray} S_{4,k}(n) & = & \sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k}(n)\right]^{4}=\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)-\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right]^{4}\nonumber \\ & = & \sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left\{ \begin{array}{c} \left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]^{3}-4\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]^{3}\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}+\left(\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right)^{4}\\ +6\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]^{2}\left(\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right)^{2}-4\left[x_{i}-m_{k-1}(n)\right]\left(\frac{\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n}}{n}\right)^{3} \end{array}\right\} \end{eqnarray} or \begin{eqnarray} S_{4,k}(n) & = & S_{4,k-1}(n)+\delta_{k}^{4}-\delta_{k-n}^{4}-\frac{4}{n}(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})[S_{3,k-1}(n)+\delta_{k}^{3}-\delta_{k-n}^{3}]\nonumber \\ & + & \frac{6}{n^{2}}(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})^{2}[S_{2,k-1}(n)+\delta_{k}^{2}-\delta_{k-n}^{2}]-\frac{3}{n^{3}}(\delta_{k}-\delta_{k-n})^{4} \end{eqnarray}

### 5.4. Cumulative calculations for $p=4$

Using the same trick and applying the condition (\ref{eq:w2c}), we get: $$S_{4,k}=S_{4,k-1}+\delta_{k}^{4}-\frac{4}{k}\delta_{k}[S_{3,k-1}+\delta_{k}^{3}]+\frac{6}{k^{2}}\delta_{k}^{2}[S_{2,k-1}+\delta_{k}^{2}]-\frac{3}{k^{3}}\delta_{k}^{4}$$ or $$S_{4,k}=S_{4,k-1}-\frac{4}{k}S_{3,k-1}\delta_{k}+\frac{6}{k^{2}}S_{2,k-1}\delta_{k}^{2}+\frac{(k-1)(k^{2}-3k+3)}{k^{2}}\delta_{k}^{4}$$

## 6. Covariance

The above approach can be generalized for the calculation of the covariance matrix elements.

### 6.1. Definition

The covariance of the components $x_{\mu}$ and $x_{\nu}$ is defined as $$c_{\mu\nu,k}(n)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{\mu,i}-m_{\mu,k}(n)\right]\left[x_{\nu,i}-m_{\nu,k}(n)\right] = \frac{1}{n}C_{\mu\nu,k}(n)\label{eq:covw}$$ Here $m_{\mu,k}(n)$ is the mean value for the $\mu$-th component. It obeys the generalized equation (\ref{eq:recc}): $$m_{\mu,k}(n)=m_{\mu,k-1}(n)+\frac{\delta_{\mu,k}-\delta_{\mu,k-n}}{n}\label{eq:mmunuk}$$ with Eqs. (\ref{eq:dk}) and (\ref{eq:dkn}) modified accordingly.

### 6.2. Windowed calculations

Using the recurrence (\ref{eq:mmunuk}) for each component we have $$C_{\mu\nu,k}(n)=\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left[x_{\mu,i}-m_{\mu,k-1}(n)-\frac{\delta_{\mu,k}-\delta_{\mu,k-n}}{n}\right]\left[x_{\nu,i}-m_{\nu,k-1}(n)-\frac{\delta_{\nu,k}-\delta_{\nu,k-n}}{n}\right]$$ The above equation can be rewritten as $$C_{\mu\nu,k}(n)=\sum_{i=k-n+1}^{k}\left\{ \begin{array}{c} \left[x_{\mu,i}-m_{\mu,k-1}(n)\right]\left[x_{\nu,i}-m_{\nu,k-1}(n)\right]-\left[x_{\mu,i}-m_{\mu,k-1}(n)\right]\frac{\delta_{\nu,k}-\delta_{\nu,k-n}}{n}\\ \frac{\delta_{\mu,k}-\delta_{\mu,k-n}}{n}\left[x_{\nu,i}-m_{\nu,k-1}(n)\right]+\frac{\delta_{\mu,k}-\delta_{\mu,k-n}}{n}\,\frac{\delta_{\nu,k}-\delta_{\nu,k-n}}{n} \end{array}\right\}$$ or $$C_{\mu\nu,k}(n)=C_{\mu\nu,k-1}(n)+\delta_{\mu,k}\delta_{\nu,k}-\delta_{\mu,k-n}\delta_{\nu,k-n}-\frac{(\delta_{\mu,k}-\delta_{\mu,k-n})(\delta_{\nu,k}-\delta_{\nu,k-n})}{n}\label{eq:Cmunuk}$$ This gives the recurrence formula for the windowed online covariance calculations.

### 6.3. Cumulative calculations

Applying the conditions (\ref{eq:w2c}) to each component, we get: \begin{eqnarray} C_{\mu\nu,k} & = & C_{\mu\nu,k-1}+\delta_{\mu,k}\delta_{\nu,k}-\frac{\delta_{\mu,k}\delta_{\nu,k}}{k}\nonumber \\ & = & C_{\mu\nu,k-1}+\delta_{\mu,k}\delta_{\nu,k}-\frac{k-1}{k}\delta_{\mu,k}\delta_{\nu,k} \end{eqnarray} This gives the recurrence formula for the cumulative online covariance calculations. Note that for $\mu=\nu$ the above equations reduce to the variance formulas.

## 7. Implementation

My Python implementation can be found on GitHub: https://github.com/dr-nikolai/online_stat. It also includes the Jupyter notebook with a test/demo.

Note that this code is not fully optimized. It is primarily an illustration to this article.

### Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Marko Draisma who pointed to a typo in Eq. 18.

Nikolai Shokhirev, 2013. Single-Pass Online Statistical Algorithms, http://www.numericalexpert.com/articles/single_pass_stat

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© Nikolai Shokhirev, 2012-2018

email: nikolai(dot)shokhirev(at)gmail(dot)com

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